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imtoken钱包下载新版本|bone

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2024-03-07 17:28:55

BONE中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

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英语-中文（简体）

bone 在英语-中文（简体）词典中的翻译

bonenoun [ C or U ] uk

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/bəʊn/ us

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/boʊn/

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B1 any of the hard parts inside a human or animal that make up its frame

骨，骨头

The child was so thin that you could see her bones.

这孩子瘦得可怜，都能看见她的骨头。

human/animal bones

人／动物的骨头

B1 the bone in meat or fish

肉骨;鱼刺

There's still a lot of meat left on the bone - shall I slice some off for you?

骨头上还有许多肉——要我替你切一些下来吗？

I don't like fish because I hate the bones.

我不喜欢吃鱼，因为我讨厌鱼刺。

更多范例减少例句A fish bone got stuck in my throat.He's broken a bone in his wrist.Doctors have replaced the top of his hip bone with a metal sphere.The soldiers discovered a pile of human skulls and bones.Doctors inserted a metal pin in his leg to hold the bones together.

习语

bone dry

bone idle

a bone of contention

have a bone to pick with someone

make no bones about something

to the bone

boneverb uk

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/bəʊn/ us

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/boʊn/

bone verb

(SEX)

[ I or T ] offensive to have sex with someone

与…性交

bone verb

(FOOD)

[ T ] to take the bones out of something

剔去…的骨头

The chef bones the fish before grilling it.

厨师烤鱼前剔除了鱼骨。

短语动词

bone up

(bone在剑桥英语-中文（简体）词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

B1,B1

bone的翻译

中文（繁体）

骨，骨頭, 肉骨, 魚骨…

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西班牙语

hueso, heso, espina…

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葡萄牙语

osso, espinha, osso [masculine]…

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मानव किंवा प्राण्याच्या आतील कोणताही कठीण भाग जो त्याची शरीर रचना बनवतो, मांस किंवा माशांमधील हाड…

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骨, 骨（ほね）…

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kemik, kılçıklarını ayıklamak, kemiklerini ayırmak…

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os [masculine], os, désosser…

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os…

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been, uitbenen, ontgraten…

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ஒரு மனிதன் அல்லது விலங்கின் உள்ளே உள்ள கடினமான பாகங்கள் அவற்றின் கட்டமைப்பை உருவாக்குகின்றன, இறைச்சி அல்லது மீனில் உள்ள எலும்பு…

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हड्डी, (माँस या मछली में) हड्डी…

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હાડકાં, માંસ અથવા માછલીમાં રહેલું હાડકું…

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knogle, ben…

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ben, bena [ur]…

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tulang, mengeluarkan tulang…

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der Knochen, die Knochen/Gräten herausnehmen…

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ben [neuter], bein, ta bein ut av…

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ہڈی, گوشت میں ہڈی یامچھلی میں کانٹا…

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кістка, виймати кістки…

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кость, вынимать кости…

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బొక్క, యముక…

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عَظْم…

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হাড়, মাংসের হাড় বা মাছের কাঁটা…

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kost, vykostit…

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tulang, membuang tulang…

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กระดูก, ถอดกระดูก…

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bộ xương, xương, gỡ xương…

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kość, ość, filetować…

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뼈…

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osso, spina, lisca…

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bonded

bondholder

bonding

bonds phrase

bone

bone china

bone dry idiom

bone idle idiom

bone marrow

bone更多的中文(简体)翻译

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T-bone

bone-dry

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bone marrow

funny bone

bone-chilling

T-bone steak

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词组动词

bone up

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惯用语

bone dry idiom

bone dry, at as dry as a bone idiom

bone idle idiom

to the bone idiom

be skin and bone(s) idiom

as dry as a bone idiom

a bone of contention idiom

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“每日一词”

veggie burger

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/ˈvedʒ.i ˌbɜː.ɡər/

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/ˈvedʒ.i ˌbɝː.ɡɚ/

a type of food similar to a hamburger but made without meat, by pressing together small pieces of vegetables, seeds, etc. into a flat, round shape

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Mechanisms of bone development and repair | Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

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Mechanisms of bone development and repair

Ankit Salhotra

ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6107-66561,2 na1, Harsh N. Shah

ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4371-92051,2 na1, Benjamin Levi3 & …Michael T. Longaker

ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1430-89141,2 Show authors

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

volume 21, pages 696–711 (2020)Cite this article

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Adult stem cellsCell biologyMolecular biologyOrganogenesisRegeneration

AbstractBone development occurs through a series of synchronous events that result in the formation of the body scaffold. The repair potential of bone and its surrounding microenvironment — including inflammatory, endothelial and Schwann cells — persists throughout adulthood, enabling restoration of tissue to its homeostatic functional state. The isolation of a single skeletal stem cell population through cell surface markers and the development of single-cell technologies are enabling precise elucidation of cellular activity and fate during bone repair by providing key insights into the mechanisms that maintain and regenerate bone during homeostasis and repair. Increased understanding of bone development, as well as normal and aberrant bone repair, has important therapeutic implications for the treatment of bone disease and ageing-related degeneration.

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Fig. 1: Bone homeostasis.Fig. 2: Skeletal stem cell hierarchy.Fig. 3: Long bone anatomy.Fig. 4: Developmental signalling pathways regulating osteoblast differentiation.Fig. 5: Continuum of bone disorders.

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Download referencesAuthor informationAuthor notesThese authors contributed equally: Ankit Salhotra, Harsh N. Shah.Authors and AffiliationsDivision of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USAAnkit Salhotra, Harsh N. Shah & Michael T. LongakerInstitute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USAAnkit Salhotra, Harsh N. Shah & Michael T. LongakerDepartment of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USABenjamin LeviAuthorsAnkit SalhotraView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarHarsh N. ShahView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarBenjamin LeviView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarMichael T. LongakerView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarContributionsThe authors contributed equally to all aspects of the article.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to

Benjamin Levi or Michael T. Longaker.Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional informationPeer review informationNature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology thanks Noriaki Ono and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.Publisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.GlossaryOsteon

A cylindrical structure consisting of a mineralized matrix and osteocytes that transports blood through connected canaliculi.

Long bone growth plate

An area of differentiating tissue located near the ends of long bones that enables physiological lengthening of the bones.

Axial skeleton

The portion of the skeleton consisting of the bones of the head and vertebrae.

Appendicular skeleton

The portion of the skeleton consisting of the bones of the appendages.

Cancellous bone

Mature adult bone consisting of spongy tissue meshwork typically found in the cores of vertebral bones and the ends of long bones.

Unicortical defect

A fracture involving only the outer and/or inner cortices on one side of the bone shaft.

Rights and permissionsReprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleSalhotra, A., Shah, H.N., Levi, B. et al. Mechanisms of bone development and repair.

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6.3 Bone Structure – Anatomy & Physiology

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Contents

Chapter 1. An Introduction to the Human Body1.0 Introduction1.1 How Structure Determines Function1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body1.3 Homeostasis1.4 Anatomical Terminology1.5 Medical ImagingChapter 2. The Chemical Level of Organization2.0 Introduction2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter2.2 Chemical Bonds2.3 Chemical Reactions2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human FunctioningChapter 3. The Cellular Level of Organization3.0 Introduction3.1 The Cell Membrane3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles3.3 The Nucleus and DNA Replication3.4 Protein Synthesis3.5 Cell Growth and Division3.6 Cellular DifferentiationChapter 4. The Tissue Level of Organization4.0 Introduction4.1 Types of Tissues4.2 Epithelial Tissue4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects4.4 Muscle Tissue4.5 Nervous Tissue4.6 Tissue Injury and AgingChapter 5. The Integumentary System5.0 Introduction5.1 Layers of the Skin5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary SystemChapter 6. Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System6.0 Introduction6.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System6.2 Bone Classification6.3 Bone Structure6.4 Bone Formation and Development6.5 Fractures: Bone Repair6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ SystemsChapter 7. Axial Skeleton7.0 Introduction7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System7.2 Bone Markings7.3 The Skull7.4 The Vertebral Column7.5 The Thoracic Cage7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial SkeletonChapter 8. The Appendicular Skeleton8.0 Introduction8.1 The Pectoral Girdle8.2 Bones of the Upper Limb8.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis8.4 Bones of the Lower Limb8.5 Development of the Appendicular SkeletonChapter 9. Joints9.0 Introduction9.1 Classification of Joints9.2 Fibrous Joints9.3 Cartilaginous Joints9.4 Synovial Joints9.5 Types of Body Movements9.6 Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints9.7 Development of JointsChapter 10. Muscle Tissue10.0 Introduction10.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues10.2 Skeletal Muscle10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension10.5 Types of Muscle Fibers10.6 Exercise and Muscle Performance10.7 Smooth Muscle Tissue10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle TissueChapter 11. The Muscular System11.0 Introduction11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower LimbsChapter 12. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue12.0 Introduction12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System12.2 Nervous Tissue12.3 The Function of Nervous Tissue12.4 Communication Between Neurons12.5 The Action PotentialChapter 13. The Peripheral Nervous System13.0 Introduction13.1 Sensory Receptors13.2 Ganglia and Nerves13.3 Spinal and Cranial Nerves13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS13.5 Ventral Horn Output and Reflexes13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams)13.7 The Cranial Nerve ExamChapter 14. The Central Nervous System14.0 Introduction14.1 Embryonic Development14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation14.3 The Brain and Spinal Cord14.4 The Spinal Cord14.5 Sensory and Motor PathwaysChapter 15. The Special Senses15.0 Introduction15.1 Taste15.2 Smell15.3 Hearing15.4 Equilibrium15.5 VisionChapter 16. The Autonomic Nervous System16.0 Introduction16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System16.2 Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis16.3 Central Control16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic SystemChapter 17. The Endocrine System17.0 Introduction17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System17.2 Hormones17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus17.4 The Thyroid Gland17.5 The Parathyroid Glands17.6 The Adrenal Glands17.7 The Pineal Gland17.8 Gonadal and Placental Hormones17.9 The Pancreas17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine SystemChapter 18. The Cardiovascular System: Blood18.0 Introduction18.1 Functions of Blood18.2 Production of the Formed Elements18.3 Erythrocytes18.4 Leukocytes and Platelets18.5 Hemostasis18.6 Blood TypingChapter 19. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart19.0 Introduction19.1 Heart Anatomy19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity19.3 Cardiac Cycle19.4 Cardiac Physiology19.5 Development of the HeartChapter 20. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation20.0 Introduction20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance20.3 Capillary Exchange20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System20.5 Circulatory Pathways20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal CirculationChapter 21. The Lymphatic and Immune System21.0 Introduction21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses21.7 Transplantation and Cancer ImmunologyChapter 22. The Respiratory System22.0 Introduction22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System22.2 The Lungs22.3 The Process of Breathing22.4 Gas Exchange22.5 Transport of Gases22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory SystemChapter 23. The Digestive System23.0 Introduction23.1 Overview of the Digestive System23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation23.3 The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus23.4 The Stomach23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder23.6 The Small and Large Intestines23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer LookChapter 24. Metabolism and Nutrition24.0 Introduction24.1 Overview of Metabolic Reactions24.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism24.3 Lipid Metabolism24.4 Protein Metabolism24.5 Metabolic States of the Body24.6 Energy and Heat Balance24.7 Nutrition and DietChapter 25. The Urinary System25.0 Introduction25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition25.8 Urine Transport and Elimination25.9 The Urinary System and HomeostasisChapter 26. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance26.0 Introduction26.1 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments26.2 Water Balance26.3 Electrolyte Balance26.4 Acid-Base Balance26.5 Disorders of Acid-Base BalanceChapter 27. The Sexual Systems27.0 Introduction27.1 Anatomy of Sexual Systems27.2 Development of Sexual Anatomy27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System27.5 Physiology of Arousal and OrgasmChapter 28. Development and Inheritance28.0 Introduction28.1 Fertilization28.2 Embryonic Development28.3 Fetal Development28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages28.6 Lactation28.7 Patterns of Inheritance Creative Commons LicenseRecommended CitationsVersioning

Anatomy & Physiology

6.3 Bone Structure

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the microscopic and gross anatomical structures of bones

Identify the gross anatomical features of a bone

Describe the histology of bone tissue, including the function of bone cells and matrix

Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone

Identify the structures that compose compact and spongy bone

Describe how bones are nourished and innervated

function?

Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first and then move on to its histology.

Gross Anatomy of Bones

A long bone has two main regions: the diaphysis and the epiphysis (Figure 6.3.1). The diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. Inside the diaphysis is the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow bone marrow in an adult. The outer walls of the diaphysis (cortex, cortical bone) are composed of dense and hard compact bone, a form of osseous tissue.

Figure 6.3.1 – Anatomy of a Long Bone: A typical long bone showing gross anatomical features.

The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled internally with spongy bone, another type of osseous tissue. Red bone marrow fills the spaces between the spongy bone in some long bones. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis. During growth, the metaphysis contains the epiphyseal plate, the site of long bone elongation described later in the chapter. When the bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line seen in the figure.

Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer of bone cells called the endosteum (endo- = “inside”; osteo- = “bone”). These bone cells (described later) cause the bone to grow, repair, and remodel throughout life. On the outside of bones there is another layer of cells that grow, repair and remodel bone as well. These cells are part of the outer double layered structure called the periosteum (peri– = “around” or “surrounding”). The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical bone and is covered by an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue (see Figure 6.3.4a). The periosteum also contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments attach to bones at the periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure 6.3.2). In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.

Figure 6.32 – Periosteum and Endosteum: The periosteum forms the outer surface of bone, and the endosteum lines the medullary cavity.

Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), covered on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 6.3.3). The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy bone work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact inner layer.

Figure 6.3.3 – Anatomy of a Flat Bone: This cross-section of a flat bone shows the spongy bone (diploë) covered on either side by a layer of compact bone.

Osseous Tissue: Bone Matrix and Cells

Bone Matrix

Osseous tissue is a connective tissue and like all connective tissues contains relatively few cells and large amounts of extracellular matrix. By mass, osseous tissue matrix consists of 1/3rd collagen fibers and 2/3rds calcium phosphate salt. The collagen provides a scaffolding surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere (see Figure 6.3.4a). These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite also incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers give them a framework for calcification and gives the bone flexibility so that it can bend without being brittle. For example, if you removed all the organic matrix (collagen) from a bone, it would crumble and shatter readily (see Figure 6.3.4b, upper panel). Conversely, if you remove all the inorganic matrix (minerals) from bone and leave the collagen, the bone becomes overly flexible and cannot bear weight (see Figure 6.3.4b, lower panel).

Figure 6.3.4a Calcified collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron micrograph, 10,000 X, By Sbertazzo – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20904735)

Figure 6.3.4b Contributions of the organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Image from Ammerman figure 6-5, Pearson

Bone Cells

Although bone cells compose less than 2% of the bone mass, they are crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Figure 6.3.5).

Figure 6.3.5 – Bone Cells: Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix. When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from a different cell lineage and act to resorb bone.

The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing portions of bone, including the endosteum and the cellular layer of the periosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and other proteins. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast become trapped within it; as a result, it changes in structure and becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a small cavity in the bone tissue called a lacuna (lacunae for plural). Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix. Osteocytes are connected to one another within the canaliculi via gap junctions.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when old ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone cells—the osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cell. These osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity and they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the cellular layer of the periosteum and the endosteum. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.

The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cells responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, are the osteoclasts. These multinucleated cells originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells, not from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old bone while osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant but subtle reshaping of bone. Table 6.3 reviews the bone cells, their functions, and locations.

Bone Cells (Table 6.3)

Cell type

Function

Location

Osteogenic cells

Develop into osteoblasts

Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum

Osteoblasts

Bone formation

Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, growing portions of bone

Osteocytes

Maintain mineral concentration of matrix

Entrapped in matrix

Osteoclasts

Bone resorption

Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, at sites of old, injured, or unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy Bone

Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and concentration vary based on the bone’s overall function. Although compact and spongy bone are made of the same matrix materials and cells, they are different in how they are organized. Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive forces, while spongy bone (also called cancellous bone) has open spaces and is supportive, but also lightweight and can be readily remodeled to accommodate changing body needs.

Compact Bone

Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of osseous tissue (Figure 6.3.6). It makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in immediate contact with the periosteum. In long bones, as you move from the outer cortical compact bone to the inner medullary cavity, the bone transitions to spongy bone.

Figure 6.3.6 – Diagram of Compact Bone: (a) This cross-sectional view of compact bone shows several osteons, the basic structural unit of compact bone. (b) In this micrograph of the osteon, you can see the concentric lamellae around the central canals. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)

Figure 6.3.7 Osteon

If you look at compact bone under the microscope, you will observe a highly organized arrangement of concentric circles that look like tree trunks. Each group of concentric circles (each “tree”) makes up the microscopic structural unit of compact bone called an osteon (this is also called a Haversian system). Each ring of the osteon is made of collagen and calcified matrix and is called a lamella (plural = lamellae). The collagen fibers of adjacent lamallae run at perpendicular angles to each other, allowing osteons to resist twisting forces in multiple directions (see figure 6.34a). Running down the center of each osteon is the central canal, or Haversian canal, which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at right angles through a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. The endosteum also lines each central canal, allowing osteons to be removed, remodeled and rebuilt over time.

The osteocytes are trapped within their lacuane, found at the borders of adjacent lamellae. As described earlier, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the central canal. This system allows nutrients to be transported to the osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them despite the impervious calcified matrix.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular = trabecula) (Figure 6.3.8). The trabeculae are covered by the endosteum, which can readily remodel them. The trabeculae may appear to be a random network, but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to direct forces out to the more solid compact bone providing strength to the bone. Spongy bone provides balance to the dense and heavy compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move them more easily. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red bone marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis occurs.

Figure 6.3.8 – Diagram of Spongy Bone: Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae that contain the osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones.

Aging and the…Skeletal System: Paget’s Disease

Paget’s disease usually occurs in adults over age 40. It is a disorder of the bone remodeling process that begins with overactive osteoclasts. This means more bone is resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts try to compensate but the new bone they lay down is weak and brittle and therefore prone to fracture.

While some people with Paget’s disease have no symptoms, others experience pain, bone fractures, and bone deformities (Figure 6.3.9). Bones of the pelvis, skull, spine, and legs are the most commonly affected. When occurring in the skull, Paget’s disease can cause headaches and hearing loss.

Figure 6.3.9 – Paget’s Disease: Normal leg bones are relatively straight, but those affected by Paget’s disease are porous and curved.

What causes the osteoclasts to become overactive? The answer is still unknown, but hereditary factors seem to play a role. Some scientists believe Paget’s disease is due to an as-yet-unidentified virus.

Paget’s disease is diagnosed via imaging studies and lab tests. X-rays may show bone deformities or areas of bone resorption. Bone scans are also useful. In these studies, a dye containing a radioactive ion is injected into the body. Areas of bone resorption have an affinity for the ion, so they will light up on the scan if the ions are absorbed. In addition, blood levels of an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase are typically elevated in people with Paget’s disease. Bisphosphonates, drugs that decrease the activity of osteoclasts, are often used in the treatment of Paget’s disease.

Blood and Nerve Supply

The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass through the compact bone. The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina), small openings in the diaphysis (Figure 6.3.10). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and blood that circulates in the marrow cavities. As the blood passes through the marrow cavities, it is collected by veins, which then pass out of the bone through the foramina.

In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the bone where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The nerves sense pain, and it appears the nerves also play roles in regulating blood supplies and in bone growth, hence their concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone.

Figure 6.3.10 – Diagram of Blood and Nerve Supply to Bone: Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramen.

External Website

Watch this video to see the microscopic features of a bone.

Chapter Review

A hollow medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow runs the length of the diaphysis of a long bone. The walls of the diaphysis are compact bone. The epiphyses, which are wider sections at each end of a long bone, are filled with spongy bone and red marrow. The epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage, is replaced by osseous tissue as the organ grows in length. The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum. The outer surface of bone, except in regions covered with articular cartilage, is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Flat bones consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone. Bone markings depend on the function and location of bones. Articulations are places where two bones meet. Projections stick out from the surface of the bone and provide attachment points for tendons and ligaments. Holes are openings or depressions in the bones.

Bone matrix consists of collagen fibers and organic ground substance, primarily hydroxyapatite formed from calcium salts. Osteogenic cells develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are cells that make new bone. They become osteocytes, the cells of mature bone, when they get trapped in the matrix. Osteoclasts engage in bone resorption. Compact bone is dense and composed of osteons, while spongy bone is less dense and made up of trabeculae. Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramina to nourish and innervate bones.

Review Questions

Critical Thinking Questions

1. If the articular cartilage at the end of one of your long bones were to degenerate, what symptoms do you think you would experience? Why?

2. In what ways is the structural makeup of compact and spongy bone well suited to their respective functions?

Glossary

articular cartilage

thin layer of cartilage covering an epiphysis; reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber

articulation

where two bone surfaces meet

canaliculi

(singular = canaliculus) channels within the bone matrix that house one of an osteocyte’s many cytoplasmic extensions that it uses to communicate and receive nutrients

central canal

longitudinal channel in the center of each osteon; contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels; also known as the Haversian canal

compact bone

dense osseous tissue that can withstand compressive forces

diaphysis

tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of a long bone

diploë

layer of spongy bone, that is sandwiched between two the layers of compact bone found in flat bones

endosteum

delicate membranous lining of a bone’s medullary cavity

epiphyseal plate

(also, growth plate) sheet of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of an immature bone; replaced by bone tissue as the organ grows in length

epiphysis

wide section at each end of a long bone; filled with spongy bone and red marrow

hole

opening or depression in a bone

lacunae

(singular = lacuna) spaces in a bone that house an osteocyte

medullary cavity

hollow region of the diaphysis; filled with yellow marrow

nutrient foramen

small opening in the middle of the external surface of the diaphysis, through which an artery enters the bone to provide nourishment

osteoblast

cell responsible for forming new bone

osteoclast

cell responsible for resorbing bone

osteocyte

primary cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix

osteogenic cell

undifferentiated cell with high mitotic activity; the only bone cells that divide; they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts

osteon

(also, Haversian system) basic structural unit of compact bone; made of concentric layers of calcified matrix

perforating canal

(also, Volkmann’s canal) channel that branches off from the central canal and houses vessels and nerves that extend to the periosteum and endosteum

periosteum

fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of bone and continuous with ligaments

projection

bone markings where part of the surface sticks out above the rest of the surface, where tendons and ligaments attach

spongy bone

(also, cancellous bone) trabeculated osseous tissue that supports shifts in weight distribution

trabeculae

(singular = trabecula) spikes or sections of the lattice-like matrix in spongy bone

Solutions

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

If the articular cartilage at the end of one of your long bones were to deteriorate, which is actually what happens in osteoarthritis, you would experience joint pain at the end of that bone and limitation of motion at that joint because there would be no cartilage to reduce friction between adjacent bones and there would be no cartilage to act as a shock absorber.

The densely packed concentric rings of matrix in compact bone are ideal for resisting compressive forces, which is the function of compact bone. The open spaces of the trabeculated network of spongy bone allow spongy bone to support shifts in weight distribution, which is the function of spongy bone.

Bone Markings

Define and list examples of bone markings

The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the function and location in the body. Table 6.2 describes the bone markings, which are illustrated in (Figure 6.3.4). There are three general classes of bone markings: (1) articulations, (2) projections, and (3) holes. As the name implies, an articulation is where two bone surfaces come together (articulus = “joint”). These surfaces tend to conform to one another, such as one being rounded and the other cupped, to facilitate the function of the articulation. A projection is an area of a bone that projects above the surface of the bone. These are the attachment points for tendons and ligaments. In general, their size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the attachment to the bone. A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels and nerves to enter the bone. As with the other markings, their size and shape reflect the size of the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these points.

Bone Markings (Table 6.2)

Marking

Description

Example

Articulations

Where two bones meet

Knee joint

Head

Prominent rounded surface

Head of femur

Facet

Flat surface

Vertebrae

Condyle

Rounded surface

Occipital condyles

Projections

Raised markings

Spinous process of the vertebrae

Protuberance

Protruding

Chin

Process

Prominence feature

Transverse process of vertebra

Spine

Sharp process

Ischial spine

Tubercle

Small, rounded process

Tubercle of humerus

Tuberosity

Rough surface

Deltoid tuberosity

Line

Slight, elongated ridge

Temporal lines of the parietal bones

Crest

Ridge

Iliac crest

Holes

Holes and depressions

Foramen (holes through which blood vessels can pass through)

Fossa

Elongated basin

Mandibular fossa

Fovea

Small pit

Fovea capitis on the head of the femur

Sulcus

Groove

Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones

Canal

Passage in bone

Auditory canal

Fissure

Slit through bone

Auricular fissure

Foramen

Hole through bone

Foramen magnum in the occipital bone

Meatus

Opening into canal

External auditory meatus

Sinus

Air-filled space in bone

Nasal sinus

Figure 6.3.4 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves.

This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, licensed under CC BY. This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.

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Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2019 by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, OSU OERU, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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The Computational Mechanics of Bone Tissue pp 3–43Cite as

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The Computational Mechanics of Bone Tissue

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Bone: Functions, Structure and Physiology

Joana da Costa Reis6 & Maria Teresa Oliveira6

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First Online: 12 February 2020

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Part of the Lecture Notes in Computational Vision and Biomechanics book series (LNCVB,volume 35)

AbstractIn this chapter, bone functions, regulation,

morphological structure and physiology are revisited. Bone is a highly complex tissue, very sensitive and responsive to external and internal stimuli, and intimately intertwined with other organs. From embryogenesis to endocrine regulation and bone remodelling, a global assessment is presented. Considering the scope of this book, special emphasis is given to how cell structure and tissue organization modulate the response to mechanical stimuli.Joana da Costa Reis and Maria Teresa Oliveira contributed equally to this work.

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Download references AcknowledgementsThis work has been partially supported by the European Commission under the 7th Framework Programme through the project Restoration, grant agreement CP-TP 280575-2 and through Portugal 2020/Alentejo 2020, grant POCI-01-0145-FEDER-032486. The support from Hamamatsu Photonics in providing the NanoZoomer SQ is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank Mr. Pedro Félix Pinto for the artwork included in this chapter that he so kindly prepared and made available. Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsEscola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Évora, Largo dos Colegiais, Évora, PortugalJoana da Costa Reis & Maria Teresa OliveiraAuthorsJoana da Costa ReisView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarMaria Teresa OliveiraView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

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Joana da Costa Reis or Maria Teresa Oliveira . Editor informationEditors and AffiliationsDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto (ISEP), Porto, PortugalJorge Belinha Departament de Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, SpainMaria-Cristina Manzanares-Céspedes Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, PortugalAntónio M. G. Completo Rights and permissionsReprints and permissions Copyright information© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG About this chapterCite this chapterda Costa Reis, J., Oliveira, M.T. (2020). Bone: Functions, Structure and Physiology.

In: Belinha, J., Manzanares-Céspedes, MC., Completo, A. (eds) The Computational Mechanics of Bone Tissue. Lecture Notes in Computational Vision and Biomechanics, vol 35. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37541-6_1Download citation.RIS.ENW.BIBDOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37541-6_1Published: 12 February 2020

Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

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imtoken钱包下载新版本|bone

imtoken钱包下载新版本|bone

BONE中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

Page restricted | ScienceDirect

Bone | Definition, Anatomy, & Composition | Britannica

Bone Research

Bones: Anatomy, function, types and clinical aspects | Kenhub

Mechanisms of bone development and repair | Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

6.3 Bone Structure – Anatomy & Physiology

Bone - Structure, Function, Types | Britannica

Bone: Functions, Structure and Physiology | SpringerLink

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imtoken钱包下载新版本|bone

imtoken钱包下载新版本|bone

BONE中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

Page restricted | ScienceDirect

Bone | Definition, Anatomy, & Composition | Britannica

Bone Research

Bones: Anatomy, function, types and clinical aspects | Kenhub

Mechanisms of bone development and repair | Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

6.3 Bone Structure – Anatomy & Physiology

Bone - Structure, Function, Types | Britannica

Bone: Functions, Structure and Physiology | SpringerLink

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